Temple at Samos

   The Temple at Samos was a large sanctuary to the Greek goddess Hera Greece’s southern region of Samos. The sanctuary was located around 6 km southwest of the ancient city in a marshy river basin of the nearby sea. The core myth at the heart of the construction of this temple is the birth of the goddess Hera. It is believed that the goddess was born under a lygos tree (the chaste-tree). This explains the reason why the cult image of Hera used to be ceremonially bound with the branches of lygo during the annual Samian festival known as the Toneia. Today, this temple is treasured not only by the Greek but everyone in the world. This came as a result of it being designated as A JOINT UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1992 together with the nearby Pythagoreion (Whitley, 2001).

            The Greek built this temple at the mouth of River Imvrasos as they believed that the region was connected with the worship of Hera. This was despite the fact that the ground was not stable. The other factor that led to this temple being constructed in this region was the belief that the goddess Hera was born and raised in this area. Historically, this is the largest temple ever built in Greece and was constructed in a faithful manner by Polykrates to replace the previous model designed by Theodoros and Rhoikos of Samos that was destroyed by an earthquake. The new temple was stronger than the previous one as in 500 BC, it still posed on 115 columns close to the Ireon (Whitley, 2001). Today, the temple stands on just a single half colossal octastyle dipteral column that has been conserved on the northeastern corner. The fact that the temple barely exists today has led to many Greeks believing that Hera has moved to another place.

            Despite the temple barely in existence, a continuous frieze that adorned the top walls of the cella and pronoas can still be seen today. Here, we can see that a triple row of columns screened the short sides of the temple whereas the capitals of the temple’s outer peristalsis were in the normal volute design. On the other hand, the inner peristalsis of the temple was based on the Ionic Kyma model. At the same time, the bases of columns and other blocks that belonged to the previous Heraion can still be seen today. Through these architectural designs, we can see that that the Temple at Samos exclusively belonged to people and its development was inseparable with the city’s political history.

References

Whitley, J. (2001). The archaeology of ancient Greece. New York: Cambridge University Press.

Palentine Chapel at Palermo; Sicily, Italy

The Palentine Chapel is the royal chapel of Sicily’s Norman kings and is located in Palermo, Southern Italy. Designed in 1130 by Roger II, the chapel is located on the ground floor of the center of the Palazzo Reale and is a major tourist attraction site in Palermo (Fabbri, 2002). This chapel is also known as the palace chapel or palace church. After designing it, Roger II of Sicily commissioned its construction in 1132 and was built upon an older chapel that had been constructed around 1080. The construction of this chapel took 8 years, and received a royal charter on the same year it was completed. By 1143, mosaics had been partially finished, a clear indication of how its construction was extremely demanding. Upon completion, its sanctuary was dedicated to Saint Peter.

            The architectural design of the chapel combines harmoniously various designs such as: the Byzantine dome and mosaics, the Arabic arches and scripts which adorn its roof and the Norman architecture. The chapel’s clusters of the four eight-pointed stars used the Muslim design as they are arranged on the ceiling in order to form a Christian cross. The muqarnas ceiling is the other remarkable feature of this chapel. The ceiling is extremely spectacular, and shows how knowledgeable individuals that constructed the chapel were. Besides the amazing ceiling, the chapel also has hundreds of facets that were painted using zoomorphic and ornamental vegetal designs. At the same time, the chapel’s paintings also reflects the various daily scenes of life, some of which are yet to be interpreted up to today. These paintings are believed to have been statistically influenced by the Iraqi Abbasid art as they are innovative in the manner in which they represent animals and personages.

            The chapel’s well-lit interior is extremely breathtaking. This aspect is brought about by the presence of exquisite mosaics. The mosaics job was done by the Byzantine Greek artisans brought to Palermo in 1140 by Roger II specifically for this project. These mosaics capture every movement, details and expression of the chapel with immense power. One of the features of this chapel that attracts people attention is the depiction of Christ Pantocrator. In addition, most of the mosaics in this chapel recount the events that took place in the Old Testament. However, some of the scenes of the mosaics simply recount the significant role that Palermo played in the Crusades. Moreover, the chapel also has a sanctuary which represents the Norman culture. The chapel’s sanctuary is dedicated to St. Martin and St. Dionysus.

References

Fabbri, P. (2002). Palermo and Monreale. Florence, Italy: Casa Editrice Bonechi.

Sant’Ivo Della Sapienza; Rome, Italy

     

       Sant’Ivo della Sapienza is a Roman Catholic church located in Rome. This church was built between 1642 and 1660 by architect Francesco Borromini utilizing the Roman Baroque architecture. Borromini dedicated this church to Saint Yves of Brittany, a lawyer who became a monk, gave everything he had to the poor and fought extremely hard against unjust taxation back in the 13^th century. Since then St. Yves is considered to be the patron of lawyers as well as abandoned children and Brittany by most Italians (Blunt, 1990). The church’s integration into the majestic colonnaded Las Sapienza courtyard is both viewed to be awe-inspiring and ingenious, aspects that make everyone that sees it to fall in love with it.

            Towards the end of the courtyard known as the Giacomo della Porta, the church rises. Here, the façade is concave in shape thereby molding the church spectacularly into the courtyard as it is completing it and not disrupting it. The façade on its part appears like a continuation of the arches of the courtyard except for the small openings filled with small windows, door and a huge large window close just above the door. One you look above the façade, there is a large parapet structure that enables people to see the church’s higher stages located past the façade. One of the amazing exteriors features of this chapel is the lantern of Sant’Ivo located on the top of the church. This lantern is topped with a spiral shape that is surmounted by a cross.

            The interior of this church is very unique to other Roman Catholic churches. This uniqueness is brought about the shapes of incorporated into the rotunda. These shapes are attributed to the fact that Borromini liked using geometrical shapes and pairing columns with an aim of facilitating curves in his architectural works. Here, the rotunda was contrived of unique shapes, a triangle with the angles cut and a semi-circles located between the three lines of the triangle. In order to define the shape of the rotunda, Borromini utilized edges and curves in equal amounts. The blending of curves and edges is believed to have been Borromini’s most unique signature. Another eye-catching feature of this church is the fact that the windows associated with the round parts of the dome are bigger than the ones associated with the edges. These aspects are easily noticeable since one of the edgy sections is where the church’s entrance is situated while the altar is located at a round section on the opposite end of the edgy section (Borromini, 1971).

References

Blunt, A. (1990). Borromini. Cambridge, Mass: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press.

Borromini, F. (1971). SantÍvo alla Sapienza. Place of publication not identified: Aedes      Acutenses.

Santa Maria In Via Lata; Rome, Italy

 

  

   Santa Maria in Via Lata is an old church that was constructed back in the 11^th using an ancient Roman portico. This church built above an old one as a result of the rise of the ground level. The ground level was however restored later in the 15^th century at the initiative of Pope Innocent VIII and Cardinal Rodrigo Borgia whose coats of arms are clearly seen on the side wall of the church. It is believed that St, Paul spent around two years in the crypt under the church while under house arrest awaiting trial (Richardson, 2009).

            The 13^th century icon of the church, Virgin Advocate is believed to have performed a lot of miracles and it is believed that the martyr Agapitus and the relics of the 3^rd century Deacon lie beneath it. During the reconstruction of the church in the late 15^th century, the Arcus Novus was destroyed as it was located at the church’s site. The church was later on renovated by Coismo Fanzago in the 17^th century. This renovation led to the completion of the façade together with its Corinthian columns imposing vertical emphasis. In this façade, its designer appears to evoke a triumphal arch. The church’s high altar constructed in 1636, known as Madonna Advocata is attributed to Bernini and is one of the few paintings that the church has. The church’s ciborium in the apses was made using lapis-lazuli and alabaster.

            Along the right hand side of the church’s nave is the first altarpiece of the martyrdom of St. Andrew. It was constructed in 1685 by Giacinto Brandi. The second altarpiece on the same side is that of saints Nicola, Biagio and Giuseppe that were constructed by Giuseppe Ghezzi. When a person enters the chapel, he or she is likely to see the apse of Madonna with child together with Saints Catherine and Cyriac built by Giovanni Odazzi.

            The chapel’s new façade built by Pietro da Cartona comprises of a loggia and portico (Merz, Blunt & Cortona, 2008). At the same time, this façade does not have a curved shape with its serliana recalling the patters of the late antiquity unlike most facades. This façade was decorated using the heraldic symbols of Pope Alexander VII and the coat of arms. For this chapel to attain its current spectacular design, it utilized the skills of the best architects at the time period. We see this through the fact that Pietro da Cortona was not involved in redesigning the interior of the chapel as this job was left to Cosimo Fanzago who was the best architect in Naples during this time.

References

Merz, J. M., Blunt, A., & Cortona, P. . (2008). Pietro da Cortona and Roman Baroque      architecture. New Haven [u.a.: Yale University Press.

Richardson, C. M. (2009). Reclaiming Rome: Cardinals in the fifteenth century. Leiden: Brill.

Palazzo Madama for the Mother Queen; Turin, Italy

            Palazzo Madama also known as the Royal Palace of Turin is a historic House of Savoy in Turin, Northern Italy. The palace was first constructed in the 16^th century but modernized in the 17^th century by Christine Marie of France. The palace includes the Chapel of the Holy Shroud and Palazzo Chiablese. The former was built to accommodate the famous Shroud of Turin. This building became the property of state in 1946 before being turned into a museum. In 1997, the palace was placed on the list of UNESCO World Heritage Site together with the other 13 residences of the House of Savoy.

            The construction of this palace was ordered in 1645 by the Regent Maria Christina. Christina wanted her son to be welcomed in a new court when he returned from the civil war. This explains the reason why she chose the palace’s location to be at the previous Bishop’s palace that had been constructed at the centre of the new capital of Savoy that was Turin during Emmanuel Philibert’s reign. One of the advantages of building this palace at this place was to enable the Duke to monitor the city’s two entrances from the Bishop’s palace. However, the Bishop’s palace was in 1536 captured by the French who used it as a residence of the French Viceroys of Savoy. This aspect led to the Bishop’s palace becoming the seat of power, hence Christina’s need for the new Palace to be constructed at its location.

            Overlooking the Piazza Castello is the section that was built by Juvarra. Today, this section is made up of a scenographic façade a single bay deep that screens the back part of the edifice that has remained unchanged since the palace was completed. On the exterior part of the palace, the architect, Juvarra expressed a magnificent architectural preamble to an edifice which was never constructed. The preamble was expressed in form of a high-ceilinged piano nobile that has an arch-headed windows  linked to the mezzanine above by an order of pilasters of a composite order. Every pilaster stands on a formal fielded channel-rusticated and sturdy base against the ground floor’s ashlar masonry (Scott, 2003). The palace’s three central bays are emphasized by the bolder relief provided by the complete columns attached to the façade. The latter are in turn strengthened by being returned inward behind them so as to give space for a glass-fronted central interior.

References

Scott, J. B. (2003). Architecture for the shroud: Relic and ritual in Turin. Chicago: University of   Chicago Press.

Henry VII’s Chapel, Eastern end of Westminster Abbey

            The Henry VII Chapel also known as Henry VII Lady Chapel located on the eastern end of Westminster Abbey whose construction was financed by the will of Henry VII. This chapel is separated from the other abbey using a flight of stairs and brass gates. The structure of this chapel is a three-aisled nave which is made up of four bays. The chapel’s apse has an alter, behind which are the tombs of Henry VII, James I and that of Henry VII’s wife. At the same time the chapel has five apsidal chapels.

            This chapel was constructed using the very late Gothic perpendicular style. This magnificent structure led to John Leland calling it the wonder of the world (orbis miraculum). At the same time, the chapel contains that tombs of Charles II, Mary Queen of Scots, Elizabeth I and Edward VI besides that of Henry VII and his wife and that of James I. Since 1725, this chapel has been serving as the mother church of the Order of the Bath. This can be seen by the presence of the banners of members that hang above the stalls.

            The construction of this chapel is believed to have been influenced by a movement toward the devotion to the Virgin Mary in the 13^th century. This movement aimed at building chapels in honor of Virgin Mary across Europe. One of the chapels constructed for this reason was Henry III’s Lady Chapel located at Westminster Abbey. In 1502, King Henry VII came up with a plan for a new chapel. This plan led to the demolition of the old chapel which subsequently led to the foundation of the new chapel being laid in January 24, 1503(Tatton-Brown & Mortimer, 2004).. Henry VII decided to build a new chapel in order to: build a shrine in honor of the body of Henry VI who was supposed to be canonized, build a sophisticated chapel for Virgin Mary and create a royal mausoleum for him and his entire family including heirs.

            The chapel’s most amazing architectural feature are the pendant fan vault. The fan vault was created through dividing the ceiling to groin vaulted compartments. The groin vaults on the other hand are created through the combination of arches along the chapel’s walls and the large transverse arches that bridge the chapel’s nave. The other spectacular architectural features of this chapel are the aisles that are divided by the rows of mahogany stalls into central, south and north aisles. All the aisles contain floor stones and monuments that are dedicated to the various British nobles (Tatton-Brown & Mortimer, 2004).

References

Tatton-Brown, T. W. T., & Mortimer, R. (2004). Westminster Abbey: The Lady Chapel of Henry               VII. Rochester NY: Boydell Press.

Palazo Ducale; Venice, Italy; 1340

            Palazo Ducale, also known as Doge’s Palace is one of the main landmarks of the city of Venice, northern Italy. The palace was built using the Venetian Gothic style, an aspect that makes it to be iconic. This palace housed the Doge of Venice who was the supreme leader of the former Republic of Venice. It was opened as a museum back in 1923 and it is one of the 11 museums run and managed by the Fondazione Museu Civici di Venezia.

            The construction of this palace began in around 1340 and was influenced by political changes that led to an increase in the number of the members of the Great Council of Venice. The palace was to be constructed using the Gothic design and was to face to the lagoon. However, things changed in 1424 when the then Doge Francesco Foscari decided to extend the palace works to the side that overlooked the Piazzetta that served as the republic’s law courts. In 1483, the palace overlooking the canal where the Doge’s residence was located was destroyed by fire. This destruction led to the need of reconstruction of the palace, and led to Antonio Rizzo commissioning the reconstruction of the palace. Unlike his predecessors, Rizzo introduced the new Renaissance language to the architecture of the building. This aspect led to a new structure being raised alongside the canal and stretched to ponte della Paglia from ponte della canonica. Since the then, the building underwent reconstructions as a result of being occupied by different administrative offices. For instance, it had to renovated by the Italian government at the end of the 19^th century as it had started showing signs of decay.

            Today, the building is believed to be iconic mainly because of its architectural design. The oldest wing of this palace is the one overlooking the lagoon whose corners are decorated with the sculptures of the 14^th century. The palace’s ground floor arcade are decorated with the 14^th and 15^th centuries’ capitals. The building also has the Porta della Carter that was built by Bartomeo Bon and Giovanni Bon which was used as a ceremonial entrance to the palace.

            The palace has a very beautiful courtyard. However, this courtyard is closed on the northern side by the junction between St. Mark’s Basilica and the palace. During the time period when Venice was a republic, St. Mrak’s Basilica used to be the Doge’s chapel. At the middle of the courtyard, there stands two well-heads that date back in the mid-16^th century. At the same time, the courtyard has a ceremonial staircase that was commissioned by the Great Council in 1485.

            When this palace housed the Doges, their rooms were usually located between the apse of St. Mark’s Basilica and Rio della Canonica, the present day Golden Staircase. In these rooms, the Doges were allowed to set aside their offices trappings where they retired at the end of the day and dine with their families. Here, Doges were allowed to bring their own furniture to their private rooms so as to be in a position to feel comfortable. Once the Doge died, his furniture was usually removed so as to pave way for a new Doge (Ragazzi, 1996).

References

Ragazzi, F. (1996). Palazzo ducale. Genova: Tormena.

Former Twin Towers; Manhattan, NY; 1973-2001

The world trade center twin towers of downtown Manhattan’s were an iconic symbol of human power. The towers were completed in 1973 with a perimeter of 10 million square feet. Each of the towers had 110 stories. The towers accommodated 50,000 workers and 200,000 daily visitors. The location of the towers is in a very active Financial District in Downtown Manhattan, were is considered a top tourist attraction, a monument of New York City and America’s icon of development and progress. The towers were the tallest in the world at its time in 1973, which made it very famous among the world.

The construction of the towers started in august 1966. The engineers had to dig 70ft into the ground to reach the bedrock due to the high capacity of buildings in downtown Manhattan. It was very hard for workers to circulate and work in such are with high capacity of buildings. A 3 foot wide trench was dug into bedrock. Slurry was replaced by the rubble of excavation. A seven floor high steel cage was placed into the trench that weighed 22 tons and was filled by concrete. Such work was done to seal the basement of the building from water in the Hudson river that surrounded the City. The Towers were made up of approximately 200,000 steel pieces, six marble acres. The wires only was 3,000 mile long. The Two long Columns had 4,000 doors and 43,600 windows. Also the Concrete equaled 425,000 cubic yard.

On 11th, of September 2001, the World Trade Center were the target of the famous terrorist attack that made it more significant and known to everyone. That tragedy took the lives of almost 3,000 people and changed the skyline of New York City, destroying the twin columns of glass and steel that over the years had come to embody the city itself. As to keep the world trade center an iconic powerful building, the towers were built again into one after being completely demolished on its site. It is proudly standing today to reflect challenge and strength. 

Sources: 

http://www.history.com/topics/world-trade-center

The Arch of Septimus Severus; Rome, Italy

 The Arch of Septimius Severus, erected in 203 CE, stands in Rome and commemorates the Roman victories over the Parthians in the final decade of the 2^nd century CE. It was one of the most richly decorated and even today, although badly damaged, it stands as a lasting and imposing monument to Roman vanity.

It stands on the Via Sacra in the forum Romanum of Rome and has three arches. The larger central archway was used for traffic, while the other two were closed off by steps. In terms of construction materials, the core and foundation are of travertine whilst, the whole is faced with Proconnesian marble. The eight composite columns are of the same marble type.

It was possible to climb the arch via an inner staircase although the entrance was 5m above ground level for security. There was a walkway above the second cornice and access to the roof through the hollow attic.

The inscription on the attic, originally with gilded bronze lettering, is a dedication to Septimius Severus and his two sons. Caracalla and Geta who “restored the Republican and expanded the dominium of the Roman people”. Interestingly, the inscription was changed following Greta’s murder by his brother Caracalla, perhaps due to a guilty conscience with the addition of P. Septimo L. fil. Getae.

The arch was richly decorated with sculpture which depicted scenes from the military campaigns in Parthia .the seasons, various duties and victories. Above the central arch on both facades are winged victories that each carries trophies. The arch has the typical central keystone of this genre of architecture monument which represents Mars, the Roman god of war. The smaller arches also have keystones which are carved to represent Bacchus and Hercules. The lower arches also carry figures. This time river gods. Above each of the small arches is a freeze which depicts a triumphal procession where booty and prisoners were showed off. The column plinths each have relief scripture showing roman soldiers captured Parthians. The most impressive sculpture is found on four huge panels which show scenes from the military campaigns in Parthia. The left panel shows the army leaving their camp .a battle, Septimius speaking before his troops and the liberation of Nisibis. The right panel shows siege machines attacking the city of Edessa, a group of Parthians surrendering to Septimius Severus. A war council and the launch of a new campaign. On the Capitoline side the left panel depicts the city of Seleucia under attack, its eventual fall and defeated Parthians.

On top of the structure there would have once been a six horse chariot in gilded bronze on which rode a statue of Septimius. The emperor was also originally flanked by his two sons on horsebacks. Trophies and garlands in bronze had also once adorned the plain structures around the inscription on the façades.

The monument suffered in later times when it was converted to o fortress, towers were added and the structure was incorporated into surrounding buildings. The smaller archways were used until 19^th century CE. Several deep cracks in the marble and breaking off of pieces of sculpture can be attributed to workmen not paying attention to the natural bedding. Sculptures have also suffered due to weathering and environmental pollution.

References

Amanda Claridge, Rome (oxford University Press .USA, 2010)

Roman Art and Architecture (Thames &Hudson)

A handbook of Roman Art (Cornell Univ Pr, 1983)

Benedictine Monastery of Cluny, France

            The Benedictine Monastery of Cluny was founded in 910 by William 1, the then Duke of Aquitaine and Count of Auvergne. The Cluny was found on a modest scale and served as the motherhouse of Cluny’s congregation. After founding the Cluny, William 1 appointed Berno as its first Abbot. Berno was only subject to then catholic pope, Pope Sergius III. This abbey was widely known for its strict adherence to St. Benedict’s rule. The Benedictine order went on to become an important aspect of the stability of the European society. During the French Revolution of 1790, most of the Abbey was destroyed. By the time the revolution came to an end, just a small portion of it remained (Constable, 2010).

            As a congregation of Cluny, the monastery had several deeds of gift which included woods, vineyards, mills, cultivated and uncultivated lands and waters. Here, the poor, pilgrims and strangers were supposed to receive hospitality. It was decided that the monastery was supposed to be free from local authorities and was only to the Pope’s subject. William went on to place the Cluny under saints Paul’s and Peter’s protection with a very a powerful curse on any person that would violate its charter. Since the Pope was living in Italy across the Alps mountains the monastery was independent.

            The art used in the construction of the Cluny of Abbey was conveyed through the mass of Mont-Saint-Vincent and the open walkways in the forest during autumn were the initiative of the monastery’s builder Etienne. Here, the Cluny enlarged around the cloister garden with an open gallery which provides access to the estate and open spaces connecting the central square. The gallery communicates with the church in the north wing while the other remaining three branches are open to the administrative placements, dining hall and the chapter room.

            The dormitories for the monks are located on the top floor of the cloister. Here, monks reach the transept of the church using staircases. On the other hand, the distribution of the Cluny’s other units such as cemetery, garden, guest house for those on the pilgrim and the school of novices was determined by the quantity of land available, richness of the entire community and number of monks (Constable, 2010).

            For the Cluny to effectively serve its purpose, the structure and materials used to construct had to be appropriate. The Cluny’s largest nave was covered using a barrel vault with naves that had low vault edges and double pointed arches. There is a staggered basilica which allows light to reach the monastery’s there levels. The wall and arches above served as screen skeletons between the columns supporting the arches of the barrel vault run which are semi-attached. The clerestory on the other hand with three windows on every corridor together with main shafts of support were divided in order to operate as three supporting elements.

            Taking into account the fact that there was no electricity during the time the Cluny was constructed constructors ensured it had numerous windows which were made up of three vaults that are cylindrical in nature. At the same time, the proportions of presbytery were expanded through the introduction of second crossing which happened to be an independent central structure. The church’s western façade had a profound recessed portal which was the first instance at the time. However, it later became a significant characteristic of all Gothic cathedrals.

References

Constable, G. (2010). The abbey of Cluny: A collection of essays to mark the eleven-hundredth      anniversary of its foundation. Berlin: Lit.

Graham, R., & Clapham, A. W. (1930). VI.—The Monastery of Cluny, 910–1155. Archaeologia (Second Series), 80, 143-178.

Smith, L. M. (1920). The early history of the monastery of Cluny. H. Milford.

Temple Apollo at Didyma

Located approximately 11 miles south of the ancient port city of Miletus on the western coast of modern-day Turkey, the temple  and ruins of Apollo at Didyma was the fourth largest temple in the ancient Greek world. The temple’s oracle played a significant role in the religious and political life of both Miletus and the greater Mediterranean world; many rulers, from  Alexander the Great (356-323 BCE) to the Roman emperor Diocletian (244-313 CE) visited or sent delegations to this oracle seeking the guidance and favour of Apollo. The oracle played a significant role in initiating the “Great Persecution” of Christians under Diocletian and the temple was later converted into a church during the 5th or 6th century CE.

In the early years of the second century B.C., a stadium was erected to the south of the temple to accommodate games associated with the festival of Apollo Didymeus. That the temple itself was never completed is reported by Pausanias (Paus. 7.5.4), and is apparent from a number of unfinished columns at the site. The Emperor Gaius Caligula intended to complete the temple (Suet. Gaius 21). Certain elements of the temple, such as Ionic capital fragments, architrave fragments, corner capitals with busts of deities, and the frieze with Medusa heads, date to the second century A.D., and are witness to the intermittent periods of construction at the temple over the centuries. In A.D. 262/3 the temple was besieged by Goths, who failed to capture it. Later, the eastern part of the temple was converted into a fort. In 1493, an earthquake caused the collapse of all but three of the structure's columns.

As far as the date of the design of the temple, if the Paionios of Ephesus mentioned by Vitruvius is the same architect who worked on the Artemision at Ephesus, he will have been free to design the Didymeion after completing the fourth-century Artemision (in ca. 330 B.C.?) Building inscriptions from ca. 299/98 B.C. refer to Seleucid funding of the construction of the temple, and indicate that work had begun; there are no building accounts from the period before 300 B.C. The dates and careers of Paionios and Daphnis are uncertain, and it is unclear how much time intervened between the planning of the temple and its actual construction. Inscribed building accounts suggest that the temple was substantially complete by ca. 250 B.C., when oracular pronouncements were made; certainly work continued at the Didymeion over the centuries, as attested by the style of carving of various elements. The adyton pilaster capitals and intervening frieze of griffins and lyres are dated to the early second century B.C. (Voigtländer 1975a, 112-121). The frieze of Medusa heads and foliage from the exterior of the temple is dated stylistically to the Hadrianic period, as are the corner capitals with figural decoration from the peripteros Pülz 1989, 47-64.

SOURCES

·       Hammond, N. G. L. (1998). "The Branchidae at Didyma and in Sogdiana". The Classical Quarterly. 48 (2): 339. doi:10.1093/cq/48.2.339. JSTOR 639826. Note 2.

·       Jump up^ Clement Alexandrinus. Protrepticus, 3.45.2-3.

·       Robert Parker, reviewing Fontenrose 1988 in The Classical Review New Series 39.2 (1989), p 270

 Al Aqsa Mosque

705 AD

Palestine

Al-Aԛѕа Mоѕԛuе, аlѕо knоwn аѕ Al-Aqsa аnd Bауt аl-Muԛаddаѕ, іѕ thе thіrd hоlіеѕt site in Sunnі Iѕlаm and is lосаtеd іn Palestine; nоthіng rеmаіnѕ оf thе original dоmе buіlt bу Abd al-Malik. Thе рrеѕеnt-dау dome wаѕ built by аz-Zаhіr аnd consists оf wооd рlаtеd with lеаd еnаmеl wоrk. Whilst the entire ѕіtе оn whісh thе ѕіlvеr-dоmеd mоѕԛuе sits, along with thе Dоmе оf thе Rock, ѕеvеntееn gаtеѕ, and fоur minarets.

It wаѕ opened іn 705 AD, with a capacity of 5,000, it was one оf thе fеw dоmеѕ to bе buіlt іn thе Umаууаd аnd Abbаѕіd реrіоdѕ in Pаlеѕtіnе, with thе іntеrіоr раіntеd wіth 14th-century-era dесоrаtіоnѕ.

Arсhіtесturаl styles utіlіzеd here іnсludе: Abbаѕіd architecture, Rоmаnеѕԛuе architecture, Fаtіmіd аrсhіtесturе. Thе mosque resides оn аn аrtіfісіаl рlаtfоrm thаt іѕ ѕuрроrtеd bу аrсhеѕ соnѕtruсtеd tо оvеrсоmе thе difficult topographic соndіtіоnѕ rеѕultіng from thе ѕоuthwаrd expansion of the enclosure into the Tуrороеоn and Kіdrоn vаllеуѕ.

It has been rеbuіlt numеrоuѕ tіmеѕ аftеr ѕеvеrаl dеѕtruсtіоnѕ еvеn аѕ rесеntlу аѕ 1969 where thе interior wаѕ irreparably lоѕt duе tо burnіng but wаѕ соmрlеtеlу rесоnѕtruсtеd using thе trаtеggіо tесhnіԛuе, a mеthоd thаt uѕеѕ fіnе vеrtісаl lіnеѕ tо dіѕtіnguіѕh rесоnѕtruсtеd areas from оrіgіnаl оnеѕ

A significant portion оf the mоѕԛuе іѕ the Dоmе, which is 83 m (272 ft) long, 56 m (184 ft) wide; іt rеflесtѕ сlаѕѕісаl Bуzаntіnе аrсhіtесturе, unlіkе the Al-Aԛѕа Mоѕԛuе іѕ whісh is сhаrасtеrіѕtіс оf early Iѕlаmіс аrсhіtесturе.

The rесtаngulаr аl-Aԛѕа Mosque аnd іtѕ рrесіnсtѕ аrе 144,000 square mеtеrѕ (1,550,000 ѕԛ ft), although the mosque іtѕеlf іѕ about 35,000 ѕԛuаrе mеtеrѕ (380,000 ѕԛ ft). It is 83 m (272 ft) lоng, 56 m (184 ft) wіdе.    

Thе mоѕԛuе'ѕ іntеrіоr іѕ ѕuрроrtеd by 45 columns, 33 оf whісh аrе whіtе marble and 12 оf stone; thе соlumn rows оf thе central аіѕlеѕ are hеаvу аnd stunted. Thе rеmаіnіng fоur rows are better proportioned. Thе capitals оf thе соlumnѕ are оf four dіffеrеnt kіndѕ: thоѕе in thе сеntrаl аіѕlе аrе hеаvу аnd рrіmіtіvеlу dеѕіgnеd, while those undеr the dоmе аrе of the Cоrіnthіаn оrdеr, аnd mаdе from Itаlіаn whіtе marble. Thе саріtаlѕ іn thе eastern aisle аrе of a heavy bаѕkеt-ѕhареd dеѕіgn аnd thоѕе еаѕt and west оf the dоmе аrе аlѕо bаѕkеt-ѕhареd, but smaller and bеttеr рrороrtіоnеd. Thе соlumnѕ аnd ріеrѕ аrе соnnесtеd bу аn аrсhіtесturаl rave, whісh соnѕіѕtѕ оf beams оf rоughlу ѕԛuаrеd tіmbеr еnсlоѕеd in a wooden casing

 The mоѕԛuе'ѕ mаіn аblutіоn fоuntаіn, knоwn аѕ al-Kas ("the Cuр"), іѕ lосаtеd nоrth of thе mosque bеtwееn іt аnd the Dоmе оf the Rосk

Althоugh оrіgіnаllу supplied wіth water from Sоlоmоn'ѕ Pооlѕ near Bethlehem with tарѕ аnd ѕtоnе seating.

, it currently rесеіvеѕ wаtеr frоm pipes соnnесtеd to Palestine’ѕ wаtеr ѕuррlу.

                     

Interior view of the mosque showing the central naves and columns

SOURCES

·         Mikdadi, Salwa D. Badrans: A Century of Tradition and Innovation, Palestinian Art Court Riweq Bienalle in Palestine.

·         Vuckovic, Brooke Olson (30 December 2004). Heavenly Journeys, Earthly Concerns: The Legacy of the Mi'raj in the Formation of Islam (Religion in History, Society and Culture). Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-96785-3.

·         Robert Schick (2007). "Byzantine Jerusalem". In Zeidan Kafafi; Robert Schick. Jerusalem before Islam. Archaeopress. p. 175.