Madrasa

          Madrasa literary means "a place where learning takes place." In many countries madrasa is a school or institution where secular or Islamic religious studies are taught. In middle eastern countries madrasa functions as a theological seminary and law school, with a curriculum centered on the Koran. Arabic grammar, literature, mathematics, logic and natural science is studied in madrasas, In some madrasas tuition is free, including food, and sometimes even medical care is provided.

          Instructions usually takes place in a class room, the class room can a large Courtyard with hundreds of students or a smaller room with fewer students. It is common in many countries to use Masque as a madrasa, and teachings take place between prayers. The first institute of madrasa education was at the estate of Hazrat Zaid bin Akram near a hill called Safa, where Hazrat Muhammad was the teacher and the students were some of his followers. Today there are Madrasas in countries all around the world from Bangladesh to the United States attended by boys and girls of all ages and it plays a social and cultural role in giving after-school religious instructions. Madrasas in west Bengal, India are increasingly opening its doors to non Muslim students, where its treated as a school of many subject, not just Islamic teachings.

          Students usually sit on the ground next to each other making two rows, they place a book rest called Rehal in front of them, with the holy Koran placed on top and recite from it. The teacher (Imam) sits at the start between the rows, to teach and test them on the verses learned from the Koran, some students attend Madrasa to learn the basics of the Koran, while others memorize it to keep it in its original form.

                               

(Rehal)

          In the past two decades madrases have become a very controversial subject, many see it is a place for radicalizing it's students and point to madrasas in Pakistan, forgetting the history that those madrasas were build by U.S. channeling money through Saudi Arabia and Pakistan. During cold war Reagan Administration sent 8 billion dollars to Pakistan's dictator Zia ul Huq to support the mujaheddin and the number of madrasa were increased from 2,500 to 39,000. In 2002 Washington post reported The United States spent millions of dollars to supply Afghan schoolchildren with textbooks filled with violent images and militant Islamic teachings.

Ronald Reagan meets Afghan Mujahideen Commanders at the White House in 1985 (Reagan Archives)

Front row, from left: Major Gen. Hamid Gul, director general of Pakistan’s Inter-Services Intelligence Directorate (ISI), Director of Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) Willian Webster; Deputy Director for Operations Clair George; an ISI colonel; and senior CIA official, Milt Bearden at a Mujahideen training camp in North-West Frontier Province of Pakistan in 1987. (source RAWA)

         

           In conclusion, madrasa is a place to learn, not just about religion but how to be a better person and help others. There will always be conflicts between people for one reason or another, and those hungry for power and influence (on both sides) will inflame these differences for thier political and/or idialogical reasons. I believe there are more similarities among people of different believes than there are differences, and learn from each other.

Bible Institute

Madrasa

  

Yeshiva

Source: The Mosque Political, Architectural and Social Transformation, by Ergun Erkocu and Cihan 

             Bugdaci. NAi Publishers.
             http://www.milligazette.com/news/5351-unicef-study-reveals-secular-nature-of-madrasas

             http://www.uncpress.unc.edu/browse/book_detail?title_id=3601

             http://peopleof.oureverydaylife.com/madrasah-islam-5055.html

Lincoln Cathedral

          The Cathedral itself begun sometimes around 1088 by Regimus de Fecamp, Bishop of Lincoln, possibly on the site of the old Saxon church of St. Mary Magdalene, which now occupies the area just outside Exchequer's Gate. While Regimus lived to see the completion of the original cathedral, the building itself would fail to last a century, being gutted in fire in 1141.

           Being extensively rebuilt and expanded in size by Bishop Alexander, this new cathedral also met its end in a natural disaster, being destroyed (with the exemption of a small part of the west end and its towers) by an earthquake on April 15 1185-the magnitude of which has not been felt in Britain since. The rebuilding of the cathedral, under Hugh of Avalon (later St. Hugh of Lincoln, for whom the south-western tower is named) began in earnest in 1192 and completes roughly around 1235. While greatly enlarged, the structural integrity of some of the building work was questionable, and in 1237 the central tower collapsed under its own weight. This was to be rebuilt under the orders of Henry III 1255.

   

          About 62 years later, work Begun to enlarge the central tower, and to top it and the other towers with magnificent wooden spires, capped with lead. When construction work was completed four years later, in 1311, the central spire reached a height of 525 feet. This would have made Lincoln Cathedral the tallest building in the world, and first to have surpassed the pyramid of Cheops in Egypt, which had held the title for some four millennia.

         The spires themselves added significant weight to the towers of St. Mary and St. Hugh. The strain of this weight was exacerbated by the bells within the tower, particularly Great Tom, the large hour bell. By the beginning of the 18th century iron braces had to be placed upon the towers due to the force of the bells and the weight of the spires making the towers lean significantly.

          By 1720, architect John Gibbs consulted with the Dean of the cathedral, and a decision was made to remove the spires and cease the ringing of the bells for the time being. Locals misunderstood this, they thought that the towers are taken down, not just the spires were to be removed, they rioted and demanded that bells should ring non stop.

          Finally in 1807 the spires were removed, alleviating some of the strain upon towers, though structure repairs have continued unabated for the past 200 years and probably well into the future.

Source:   http://acidadebranca.tumblr.com/post/71082798154/architecture-section-elevation-england
               http://thelincolnite.co.uk/2013/11/when-lincoln-cathedral-was-the-tallest-building-in-the-world/

          

Palazzo Farenes

          Palazzo Farnese, is a beautiful palace in Rome, work on building it started in 1514 by Antonio Sangallo, continued by Michelangelo and completed by Giacomo della Porta. Considered one of the wonders of Rome, its sheer size has earned it the nickname "the die". Ownership of the Palazzo Farnese changed repeatedly over the years. In the 18th century, the palazoo became the property of the Bourbon Kings of Naples and was renamed "Palazzo Regio Farnese". In 1911 it was purchased by France and then sold to Italy, which in return rented it back to French under 99-year lease, since 1874 it has been the headquarters to the French Embassy.

          It all started when Cardinal Alessandro Farnese (the future Pope Paul III) purchased and then demolished the original buildings on the site to create the piazza and his own magnificent residence. Design of the project was awarded to Antonio da Sangallo the Younger, work began in 1514, butwhen the original architect died in 1546, Michelangelo was called in . He designed the first two floors, build the third, and adorned the facade with a central balcony. He also planned to build a bridge that would span the Tiber and connect the rear of the palazzo to the Villa Chigi- also called the "Farnesina"(the little Farnese)- on the opposite bank, but because of the death of Pope Paul III, the project was never completed.

          The Palace has three floors, which find clear expression on the superb, linear facade. The austere brick ornamentation is variously shaded (due to different banking temperatures), this coloring having been revealed during a recent restoration. It is unclear why such dissimilar bricks were used, was this multicolored brick layer intended to be visible, when considers other Roman palazzos of the same period, it more credible to believe different color ultimately meant to be hidden with plaster. 

     

          Source: A Companion to Roman Architecture, edited by Ulrich and Quenemoen.
                       http://metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/360507

                       http://quod.lib.umich.edu/cgi/i/image/image-idx?id=S-HIAAIC-X-BF578G%5DBF578G

                       http://www.turismoroma.it/cosa-fare/palazzo-farnese?lang=en

                       http://www.italyguides.it/en/lazio/rome/palaces/farnese-palace

Villa Garzoni

          Designed in the 18th century by Lucca architect Ottaviano Diodati, The historic Garzoni Garden is one of the most beautiful Garden in Italy, represents a happy synthesis between Renaissance geometry and the spectacular character of the Baroque. The garden can be considered a rare example of equilibrium in art, where the green, the terraces and fountains all converge to form a united whole.

          The garden opens as it a splendid by Lucca architect Ottaviano Diodati, the garden opens as if a splendid theater complete with fountains and large baths. The garden rises from a semi-circular parterre through terraced flights of steps to a water cascade, thrusting into the woods. The cascade widens as it ascends the hill, making it more dramatic when seen from below and more extensive when seen from above. A heroic terracotta statue of fame waves gaily from a high point in the garden. Next to the majesty of the Villa Garzoni it would have been impossible not to create a garden so magnificent that it is celebrated still today. The original garden was created in the 17th century along with the villa built by the powerful Garzoni family. The first concrete mention of the villa dates back to 1633. The marquis Romano di Alessandro Garzoni was likely the first architect of the garden in the 1650s. The light and airy atmosphere reaches its apex in the "Bagnetti" area where dames and knights could splash and play amongst mirrors and green labyrinths. 

      

          In the garden grottos, theaters carved out in hedges, statues of mythological creatures, satyrs, female figures, bamboo forests and greenhouses with peacocks. Upon entering the garden we find flower beds, statues and two large circular baths before coming to two majestic staircases characterized by a complex hydraulic system that feeds into the fountains. The staircase is flanked by two statues of females that represent two eternal rivals, Lucca and Florence.

Source: http://www.italie-infos.fr/architecture-garzoni/garzoni.htm

             http://www.gardenvisit.com/gardens/villa_garzoni

             http://www.turismo.intoscana.it/site/en/highlights/Villa-Garzonis-historic-garden/

Cornaro Chapel

          Cornaro Chapel of the church of Santa Maria della Vittoria, was carved by Bernini, one of the leading Baroque sculptors of the Roman school. It's a deliberately intense work of Christian art, its an example of the Counter-Reformation style of Baroque sculpture, to convey spiritual aspects of the Catholic faith. The work depicts an episode of "religious ecstasy"in the life of the cloistered Spanish mystic and Carmelite nun- Teresa of Avila (1515-1582). Despite its statue as a key work of religious art, critics of the work are divided as to weather Teresa is experiencing an intense state of divine joy, or a physical orgasm.

           Bernini, who was the leading sculptor of his time in Rome worked on the sculpture fro 1647 to 1652, during the reign of the Pamphili Pope, Innocent X (1644-55). Essentially, Bernini designed the chapel as a theater for his sculpture. The latter is a set in a niche above and behind the altar, flanked by pairs of marble columns. It is theatrically illuminated by beams of natural light from a hidden window overhead. This natural light reflects off a sheaf of vertical gilt bronze shafts behind the sculpture, sculpted to resemble the rays of the sun. High above, the ceiling of the Chapel is frescoed with trompe L'oeil images of a sky filled with cherubs.

          The sculpture of Saint Teresa consists of two figures, sculpted in white marble. Teresa is shown lying on a cloud, and an angel standing above her, holding a golden spear pointed at Teresa's heart. To represent the true intensity of Teresa's experience, Bernini shows her swooning in near erotic rapture, with eyes closed and mouth open, and both her visible limbs. The ruffled, heavy drapery of her clothing adds to the movement and drama of the scene, and the texture of the fabric contrasts with the purity of her face. The child like angel looks lovingly at Teresa as he prepares to pierce her heart with spear of divine love, completing her mystical union with God.  

          Source : A Companion to Roman Architecture, Edited by Ulrich and Quenemoem

                        http://www.visual-arts-cork.com/sculpture/ecstasy-of-saint-teresa.htm

                        https://www.pinterest.com/pin/510454938986116740/

Tekfur Sarayi

Tekfur Sarayi

           Tekfur Sarayi, means "Palace of the Sovereign" was constructed during late 13th century or early 14th as part of the Blachernae palace complex, situated in the walls of the city and was annex to the great Palace of Blachernai, a complex of buildings which stood further down the hill towards the Golden Horn. The palace was situated at the very highest point within the city walls and was visible over a wide area.

           It is the only well preserved of Byzantine domestic architecture at Constantinople. The top story was a vast throne room.The facade was decorated with heraldic symbols of the Palaiologan imperial dynasty and it was originally called the House of the Porphyrogennetos- which means "born in the Purple Chamber." It was built for Constantine, third son of Michael VIII and dates between 1261 and 1291.  It suffered damage during the cannonades of the Ottoman conquest of Constantinople (1453), and later served as part of the sultan's menagerie, later as a brothel, then as a pottery workshop and a poorhouse before being abandoned in the later 1700.

          During Ottoman times, the palace was used as a menagerie by the Sultans. They had several around the city and one in Tekfur Sarayi housed two huge elephants, giraffers and other 'docile' creatures. One can see houw the courtyard and ground floor could easily accomodate cages for animals as big as elephants and giraffes. 

           Here are two accounts from people who saw the Sultan's menagerie in the 16th century: A man named Belon wrote. "There one saw the ruins of a very ancient palace, which the vulgates called the palace of Constantine. The Turks used it to feed their elephants."

           Monsieur d'Aramon. Ambassador of the French King, reported. "There was also a certain place where one saw a monstrous number of savage beast which were well guarded and among theme were lions, lionesses, tamed wolves, wild wolves, wild cats, leopards, lynx, wild donkeys, and ostriches in quantity. In another place, one saw a certain beast which the residents called a sea pig and others called sea cow, in the same place they had two elephants, marvelously large."

          It is hard to know exactly when the palace lost its peaked roof and wooden floors, from a maps of the 18th century we can still see a roof, so when the place was 'ruined'- and what ruined meant at various stages-we don't know exactly.

       Source: https://www.pallasweb.com/deesis/tekfur-saray-blanchernai-byzantium.html 

          

Temple of Venus and Rome

        The Temple of Venus and Rome was designed by Hadrian, although it's believed that the Temple of Venus and Rome was designed in AD 121, it was construction did not begin until AD 125. The Temple was dedicated 10 years later, and may have been finished by Hadrian's Successor Antoninus Pius sometimes between Ad 140 and 145. The temple got damaged by fire in AD 307, and it was restored "in magnificent manner" by Maxentius (Aurelius Victor, De Caearibus, XL). Indeed, when Constantius visited Rome fifty years later, the so called Temple of the City was one of the sight that he most admired (Ammianus, History, XVI.10.14)

                                                                                 
           The Temple of Venus and Rome was very different from the Pantheon, in both its structure and its iconography. In this case, Hadrian's interest in Greek architecture-both his antiquarian enthusiasms and his interest in basing the design of a new temple on earlier precedents-was overtly expressed. In A.D. 124 just before construction of the new temple was begun, he visited Athens, then made a brief excursion to the Peleponnesus-Megara, Argos, Mantinea, and Olympia. In each of these cities, he saw temples that may have had a degree of influence on the Temple of Venus and Rome. The most important of these, however was the Athenian Temple of Olympian Zeus.

          The Temple of Venus and Rome had two cellae, each holding a cult statue-Venus Felix ancestor of the Rome people, and Rome Aeterna, the genius (personification) of the city, a symmetrical arrangement that may have been influenced by the palindrome that the two deities evoked: Roma and Amor. Situated on the slope of the Velia hill, with the Arch of Titus at one corner and the Via Sacra passing down its flank, Hadrian's temple effectively joint the Forum (upon which Roma looked) and the Colosseum (which was faced by Venus).

         The Temple was decastyle, the only one to have ten column across its principle facade with ten columns and twenty columns along the sides. Robinson further describes it as "dipteral at the ends, pseudo-dipteral along the sides, with a pronaos at each end tetastyle in antis." Whereas a dipteral temple had two rows of columns along all four sides of the cella or sacred chamber, a pseudo-dipteral temple omits this inner course of columns is in the front and rear, the impression of the temple being dipteral. Stamper emphasizes the association of the temple with that of Olympian Zeus in Athens, which Hadrian had visited in AD 124-125, just before construction on his own temple began, using the Temple of Olympian Zeus as its model, which he himself dedicated on his second visit there. Both temples are surrounded by a paved court enclosed by a portico from which the stylobate is approached by steps on all four sides. Both temples are peripteral, having columns on all four sides, and dipteral (having a double row of columns around all four sides), which two rows of twenty columns on the long side. But, whereas the Temple of Olympian Zeus is octastyle, with right columns across the principal facade, the Temple of Venus and Rome has ten (decastyle). 

          When Hadrian asked Apollodorus, who had designed the Forum of Trajan, to comment on his design, he allegedly replied that the temple was too low and the statues of gods too tall for the space the occupied. "For now", he said, 'if the goddesses wish to get up and go out, they will be unable to do so'.

            When the Building was dedicated in A.D. 136-137, official valedictory coins were issued that praised Hadrian for having achieved peace, stability, prosperity, and unity. One such coin, with an image of Herakles, proclaimed that the whole earth was abundantly fruitful and comfortably stable thanks to the efforts of this emperor so much like Herakles, "the great adventurer, traveler and friend of men."

          Source: The Architecture of Roman Temples, by John W. Stamper
                        penelope.uchicago.edu/...romana/romanurbs/venus..   

Kaaba

          The Kaaba, meaning cube in Arabic, is a square building elegantly draped in a silk and cotton veil. Located in Mecca, Saudi Arabia, it is the holiest shrine in Islam. Followers of Islam (Muslims) pray five times a day and these prayers were directed towards Mecca and the Kaaba rather than Jerusalem; this direction or qibla in Arabic-is making in all mosques and enables the faithful to know in which direction they should pray. Muslims from all around the world make a pilgrimage to Madina to perform hajj at least once in their life time, the number of pilgrims can get to million people during hajj.

         The Kaaba was a sanctuary in pre-Islamic times Muslin believe that Abraham and his son, Ismail, constructed the Kaaba. Originally Kaaba was a simple unroofed rectangular structure. The Quraysh tribe, who ruled Kaaba, rebuild the pre-Islamic Kaaba in c. 608 CE with alternating causes of masonry and wood, a door was raised above ground level to protect shrine from intruders and flood waters.

          Muhammad (peace be upon him) was driven out of Mecca in 620 CE to Yathrib, which is known as Madina. Upon his return to Mecca 629/30 CE, the shrine became the focal point for Muslims worship and pilgrimage.

          The Kaaba has been modified extensively throughout it's history. The area around the Kaaba was expanded in order to accommodate the growing number of pilgrims by the second Caliph Umar who ruled 634-44 CE. The Caliph Uthman, who ruled 644-56 CE, build the colonnades around the open plaza where the Kaaba stands and incorporated other important monuments into the sanctuary.
       
          During the civil war between the Caliph Abdul Malik and Ibn Zubayr, who controlled Mecca,
the Kaaba was set on fire in 683 CE. The Kaaba was set on fire in 683 CE. Ibn Zubayr, resembled it with silver. He rebuild the Kaaba in wood and stone, following Abraham's original dimensions and also paved the space around the Kaaba.

          Under the Umayyad Caliph al-Walid, who ruled 705-15 CE, the mosque that encloses the Kaaba was decorated with mosaics like those of the Dome of the Rock and the Great Mosque of Damascus, by the seventh century the Kaaba was covered with Kiswa, a black cloth that is replaced annually during the hajj.

          Abbasid Caliphs, who ruled from 50-1250 CE, the mosque around the KAABA was expanded and modified several times. From 1269-1517 CE, the Mamluks of Egypt controlled the Hajiz, the highlands in western Arbia where Mecca is located.

          The last major modifications were carried out in the 1950s by the government of Saudi Arabia to accommodate the increasingly large number of pilgrims who come on the hajj. Today the mosque cover almost 40 acres.

          Today, Kaaba is fifteen meters tall and ten and half meters on each side; its corners roughly align with the cardinal directions. the door of the Kaaba is now made of solid gold; it was added in 1982. The kiswa-the large cloth that covers the Kaaba-used to be sent from Egypt with the hajj caravan but today is made in Saudi Arabia.

           The numerous changes to the Kaaba and its associated mosque serve as good reminder of how often buildings, even sacred ones, are renovated and remodeled either due to damage or to the changing needs of the community.

Source The Art and Architecture in the Islamic Tradition, by Mohammad Hamdouni Alami
            :https://www.khanacademy.org/humanities/.../the-kaaba

Pyramid of Djoser

               The Remains of the Pyramid of Djoser is in the Sagga Necropolis Egypt, northeast of the city of Memphis. This pyramid was built during the 27th century B.C, for the burial of Pharaoh Djoser by the vizier Imhotep. It's the first Egyptian Pyramid to consist of six mastabas. The original height of the Pyramid was 203 feet tall and has base of 358 feet by 410 feet it is cladded with polish limeston.

          

          Djoser was the first king of the 3rd dynasty (2667 to 2648 BC) of the Egyptian old kingdom, he ruled for 19 years. Djoser is best known for his innovation in creating tomb which dominates the Saggara landscape. Djoser's step Pyramid is astounding in its departure from previous architecture. It's the first monument structure made from stone, and building stone structure are far more labor intensive than mud-brick structures, this suggests that the government had control of new resources from this point onward.  

          Kings of the old kingdom were buried in the north than at the Hydos (old city of ancient Egypt). Step Pyramid sets the stage for later Pyramids of the 4th, 5th and the 6th dynasty, including the Great Pyramid of Giza. Djoser Pyramid drew ideas from several precedent that's found at Saggara Mastaba.

          Pyramid of Djoser was the tallest of its time, its chambers were underground hidden in the maze of tunnels probably to discourage grave robbers. Inhotep was the Architect of step Pyramid, he was also a physician, a priest and founder of the cult of healing.

          Sources:  The Complete Pyramid, by Mark Lehner

                          www.nationalgeopgraphic.com/pyramids/djoser

                         https://www.britannica.com/technology/mastaba