Arch of Hadrian, Athens, Greece, 131 AD

Constructed in 131 AD, the Arch of Hadrian is a monumental gateway built by the roman emperor, Hadrian as a part of a wall separating the old and new Athens. The arch spanned an ancient road from the center of Athens to the complex on the eastern side of the city that included the Temple of Olympian Zeus. British architects, Stuart and Revett did the earliest and only complete architectural study of the arch in 1751-53. They were perplexed by the fact that the arch is not aligned with the Temple of Olympian Zeus, despite the fact that it is only 20m from the boundary wall of that complex. It has been suggested that the arch was built to celebrate the arrival of the emperor to the city and to honor him at the time of the dedication of the temple. It is unclear who commissioned the arch but is likely that a group of Greek citizens designed and constructed it.

Google Maps

The entire arch is made of Pentelic marble, from Mt Pendelikon. The design is fully symmetrical from front to back and side to side. It stands eighteen meters (fifty nine feet) high, thirteen and a half meters (forty four feet) wide and two point three meters (seven and a half feet) in depth and the single arched passageway of the lower level is six and a half meters (twenty one feet) wide. The lower arch is supported by pilasters crowned with Corinthian capitals. Similar but taller pilasters are on the outer corners. The space between the outer pilasters and the arched opening were filled in with squared stones with cut edges. The top of the lower level has an Ionic architrave with dentils and a geison.  On the lower level, the side of the arch facing the Acropolis has the inscription “ΑΙΔ' ΕIΣΙΝ ΑΘΗΝΑΙ ΘΗΣΕΩΣ Η ΠΡΙΝ ΠΟΛΙΣ” - “This is Athens, the former city of Theseus” while the other side reads, “ΑΙΔE ΑΔΡΙΑΝΟΥ ΚΟΥΧI ΘΗΣΕΩΣ ΠΟΛΙΣ” -“This is the city of Hadrian and not of Theseus.” The upper level of the arch has Corinthian columns and pilasters dividing the top into three openings. The outer openings, like the lower level, had an Ionic architrave with dentils and a geison. The central opening is different, it has antae with engaged Corinthian half-columns that support a triangular pediment that rested on the dentils, geison and sima that joined the center to the two sides. The central opening was originally covered with a thin screen of stone. Today, only the slots for its mounting exist. It has been suggested that there were statues in the side arches of the upper level. Some historians believe, based on the inscriptions, the statues were of Hadrian and Theseus, the two founders of Athens.

Stuart and Revett, Elevation

In the mid-eighteenth century, Stuart and Revett did architectural records of the arch. At that time, the base of the arch was buried only three feet into the ground. It has survived the centuries in remarkable condition, just missing the columns of the lower level. Today, it stands at its full height and towers over modern Amalias Avenue. As of late, the atmospheric pollution has discolored and degraded the original stone of the monument. 

Sources: 
1-  Watkin, David. A History of Western Architecture: Sixth ed. New York: Thames and Hudson, 1986. Print.
2- Martin, Roland. Greek Architecture: Electa Architecture, 2003. Print
3- https://www2.bc.edu/~scannedc/honors2.html

The Altar of Zeus

The Altar of Zeus, also known as the Pergamon Altar, was built in the Greek city of Pergamon during the second century BC by king Eumenes II. This structure is one of the most successful examples of  Greek Hellenistic sculpture because of its lively and exciting scenarios, as opposed to the more calm and harmonious style of more classical Greek sculptures.

The Altar is comprised of  a main staircase on the west side of the structure that was 20 meters wide, and the overall structure was 35 meters wide and 33 meters deep. The stairs lead up to a colonnaded terrace that wraps around both sides of the structure. The base of the altar is 20 feet high with 9-foot high friezes which depict the Greek Gigantomachy; which is the Greek myth of the battle between the gods and the titans, or old gods. Each side of the frieze depicts different scenes of gods fighting giants, and even shows specific gods and giants which can be identified. The upper inner courtyard also houed the fire altar and the telephus reliefs. 

There were also theories of what the altar was built for specifically. One theory suggests whether or not the altar was related to any the the military victories of Eumenes II. These, however, were disproven by analysis of the friezes and other artifacts which were actually related to military victories of the time. Most of the theories relate the altar to a victory of Pergamon. No theory has been accepted to be fact as of this date; what is known, however, is that it was an altar and not a temple and could have been related to the temple of Athena in the Acropolis.

            There was interaction with the altar many times throughout the years leading up to its preservation by many different peoples. It wasn’t until the Prussian engineer Carl Humann advocated its preservation that the Altar of Zeus was disassembled and reassembled in the Berlin Museum. Parts of the marble and stone were being quarried by the local people to use in their homes. Humann wanted to find a way to prevent this from happening. With the help of other people and the German government, he was able to bring the Hellenistic masterpiece over to Berlin. The altar was also known by some as the Seat of Satan due to the use of it by Adolf Hitler. His chief architect Albert Speer used it as inspiration for the design of Hitler’s parade ground. It was an incredibly successful idea that heightened the popularity of Hitler.

Unfortunately the entire altar is not visible in the Berlin museum, only the front of it is. This is still, however, a grand example of Hellenistic sculpture to see. 

Works Cited:

"Altar of Zeus at Pergamon (c.166-156 BCE)." Pergamon Altar of Zeus. N.p., n.d. Web. 30 Oct. 2016.  

Bilsel, Can. Antiquity on Display: Regimes of the Authentic in Berlin's Pergamon Museum. Oxford: Oxford UP, 2012. Print.

Ridgway, Brunilde Sismondo. Fourth-century Styles in Greek Sculpture. Madison, WI: U of Wisconsin, 1997. Print.

The Pantheon, 125 AD, Rome, Italy

The Pantheon was the greatest dome structure built during the Roman Empire and the architect of this project was Apollodorus of Damascus. The structure relates to the Treasury of Atreus in Egypt built 1,400 years before the Pantheon. Also, the Greeks and Romans had built numerous circular buildings, the one closest to the Pantheon is the Arsinoeion, a tholos dedicated to the great god in c.270 BC on the island of Samothrace in the northern Aegean. The Pantheon was built on the exact site of two earlier Pantheon buildings, one commissioned by Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa (27-25 BCE) and the second by Domitian. The first was destroyed by fire in 80 CE and the second was struck by lightning in 110 CE and again burned down. The third Pantheon was probably begun in the reign of Trajan (98-117 CE) but not finally finished until around 125 CE when Hadrian was emperor. The Pantheon was first built as a temple to all gods, which is why the dome span to 142 feet. The perfectly balanced proportions of the interior are since the inner diameter of the dome is exactly equal to the height of its oculus from the floor.

Treasury of Atreus

Pantheon

The actual construction of the building was complex and original: with inspirations from other structures. There's a series of six constructional layers, starting with the heaviest for the foundations and finishing with the lightest, pumice, for the upper portion of the dome. The seventh layer consisting simply of air, since the top of the dome is open to the sky through an oculus 28 feet in diameter.

The whole building stands on a 1.3 meters high base which originally extended a further 7 meters in front of the colonnade. The building consists of two principal parts - the porch, which is very Classical Greek in presentation, and the circular main building which is much more Roman in style. The circular building is built with brick and concrete but was originally faced with white marble stucco to match the porch in appearance.

The interior of the Pantheon may well be the first building from Classical architecture where the interior is deliberately made to outshine the exterior. The dome is made from mix of concrete and its interior is further lightened by five rings of 28 coffers which reduce in size as they rise towards the center of the dome. The Pantheon was beautifully engineer for the religious purpose it has, which was to all the Gods.

Source:

Cartwright, Mark. "The Pantheon, Rome." Ancient History Encyclopedia. 09 June 2013. Web.

Glancey, Jonathan. Architecture. London: DK, 2006. PrintWatkin, David. A History of Western Architecture. Sixth ed. New York: Thames and Hudson, 1986. Print.

The Greek Agora

          Agora, in ancient Greek cities, was a large open square on slopping ground northwest of the Acropolis. It was designed as the civic center of the town, and was reserved for gatherings of citizens for a variety of purposes. The name, first found in the works of Homer, it was applied by the classical Greeks of the 5th century BC to what they regarded as a typical feature of their life; their daily religious, political, judicial, social, and commercial activity.

          The Agora was located either in the middle of the city or near the harbor, which was surrounded by public buildings and by temples. Colonnades, sometimes containing shops,  often enclosed the space, and statues, altars, trees, and fountains adorned it. The general trend at this time was to isolate the Agora from the rest of the town. Earlier stages in the evolution of the Agora have been sought in the East and, with better results, in Minoan Crete and in Mycenaean Greece.

          The use of the Agora varied at different periods. Even in classical times the space did not always remain the place for popular assemblies. In Athens the assembly was moved to the Pnyx (a hill to the west of the Acropolis), though the meetings devoted to ostracism were still held in the Agora, where the main tribunal remained. Retail traders know as "Kapelio" served as middle men between the craft men and customers, but were largely mistrusted in ancient time as unnecessary parasites. These traders were mostly were not the natives of that particular place, while the craftsmen were either citizens or free slaves.  

          The Agora also served for theatrical and gymnastic performances until special buildings and spaces were reserved for these purposes. In Athens respectable women were seldom seen in the Agora. Men accused of murder and other crimes were forbidden to enter it before their trials. Free men went there not only to transact business and to act as jurors but also to talk and idle-a habit often mentioned by comic poets. In exceptional circumstances a tomb in the Agora was granted as the highest honor for a citizen.

     Source: The Archaeology of Athens by John M. Camp. Yale University Press
                  https://www.britannica.com/topic/agora

Choragic Monument of Lysicrates, Athens Greece, 334 BC

Choragic Monument of Lysicrates, Athens

The Theater of Dionysus is the birthplace of European theater as famous Greek tragedies and comedies were performed there as early as 534 BC. The theater of Dionysus contained seating constructed of wood and clay around the orchestra which was a rectangular area. Many Greek writers premiered their works at this theater during an annual theater festival known as Dionysia, named after the god Dionysus. In these competitions, plays were opposed against each other. The performances were sponsored by wealthy patrons of the arts who received a trophy as a reward for contributing to the theater performances. In 334 BC, Lysicrates received a trophy as his prize and as was customary, he built a monument for the trophy to be placed upon in 334 BC.  

Sketch of the Choragic Monument of Lysicrates

The monument has a 9.5 foot square foundation that is 13 feet high and is topped by a circular edifice that is 21 feet high. On top of the edifice can be found a tholos, circular structure supported by six Corinthian columns that is covered with a marble roof. All of this is made of Pentelic marble. Just below the marble roof can be seen a frieze. In careful detail, scenes from the play that must have won the competition are depicted. It shows Dionysus defeating Tyrrhenian pirates by turning them into dolphins. 3

Plan of the monument

Frieze on the column

The Choragic Monument of Lysicrates is one of the first Greek monuments built according to the Corinthian order which is why it might still hold so much importance today. Whereas it once held the bronze trophy, it now stands on its own in a small garden on Tripodon Street, located not far from the Theater of Dionysus. In 1669, the monument and surrounding area were perched by a French Capuchin monastery. However, the monastery was demolished during the Greek war of Independence of 1821. Later, in 1976-1887, architects Francois Boulanger and E. Loviot supervised a restoration under the auspices of the French Government. Even though it wass restored, the column capitals have been eroded greatly and the delicacy it had is not present anymore. 1

Merchant's Exchange in Philadelphia

This choragic monument has influenced other cultures so much that there are other versions of it which include the Dugald Stewart Monument on Calton Hill in the United Kingdom and another can be found in the Botanic Gardens of Sydney Australia. This choragic monument of Lysicrates became a popular symbol of ancient Greek culture in the west too as it has been used as a model in buildings such as the Merchant’s Exchange in Philadelphia. 2

Works Cited

1 Loth, Calder. "CLASSICAL COMMENTS: THE CORINTHIAN OF THE CHORAGIC MONUMENT OF LYSICRATES | Classicist Blog." Classicist Blog. N.p., 1 Apr. 2011. Web. 29 Oct. 2016.

2 "Lysicrates Monument in Athens - Greeka.com." Greeka. N.p., n.d. Web. 29 Oct. 2016.

3 Herbert F. De Cou, "The Frieze of the Choragic Monument of Lysikrates at Athens", The American Journal of Archaeology and of the History of the Fine Arts, 8. 1 (January - March 1893):42-55) summarizes the history

Temple of Artemis at Ephesus

              The temple of Artemis was a temple that rebuild three times in ancient Turkey and is considered one of the seven wonders of the ancient world. The reasons were mob, fire, and flood. The temple was built to honor Artemis, one of the three maidens of the goddess of Olympus. Artemis was an Olympian god and the daughter of Zeus and Leto. The temple was once served as a cultic place to worship for the Greek goddess Atermis, while other times it was used as a marketplace. In 800 B.C. the first temple built and it took 10 years to built it. It was built around a marhsy strip near the river of Ephesus which is now present day Turkey. In 750 B.C. the first version of the temple was destroyed due to either a flood while other people believed it was due to a war. 

     

Floor plans of each temple when they rebuilt it. 

               

Then, they built the second temple around 550 B.C. by the architects Cherisphron and his son Metagenes who were Cretan. The second version of the temple was approximately four times larger in area than the previous one. The architects made high stone columns but Cherisphron was afraid that the would break so he ordered his workers to put the columns into its right place. The materials they mostly used for to build the temple is mainly marble.The second version of the temple was destroyed by a man named Herostratus. Herostratus set the temple on fire because he wanted to put his name to fame in history. But if anyone mentioned his name that he set the temple on fire, they would get sentenced to death. Also, what happened that day is the when Herostratus set the temple on fire is the day Alexander the Great was born. 

Temple Of Artemis Ruins

               Years later after the temple was destroyed, Alexander the great visited Ephesus and he offered to help rebuild the temple the third time but with one condition, to make sure they put his name on the temple. The townspeople were so upset about the offering that they did not engrave his name on the temple. After the death of Alexander the Great in 323 B.C., the temple was finally rebuilt. The third time the temple was built, the size was approximately 450 feet long and 225 feet wide. The height was 60 feet and had at least 127 columns. But then in 268 A.D. years later, a tribe of East Germany called the Goths, destroyed the temple once more. This version of the temple lasted more than 600 years. 

             The temple of Artemis was never rebuilt after it was destroyed by the goths. The reason being is because the cost was too high. In 401 A.D., a man named St. John Chrysostom ordered the people to torn down the temple. Now where the temple once stood, its now a swamp. Some of the pieces of the temple can be seen in a British museum in England. Building back then was a lot harder then it is as of today. 

Works Cited:
[1] http://www.crystalinks.com/templeofartemis.html

[2] Dinsmoor, William Bell, and William J. Anderson. The Architecture of Ancient Greece; an Account of Its Historic Development.